Accepted and Neutral Divination in the Old Testament. The
predominant divination item mentioned in the Bible without condemnation was the
Urim and Thummim pair, which priests used to determine Yahweh’s will. Reiner
and Hurowitz suggest these biblical items may have been comparable to
Mesopotamian psephomancy and were used to answer yes or no questions (Reiner,
“Fortune-telling” 25, Hurowitz and Hurowitz, “Urim and Thummim,” 96). Houtman
notes that more complicated answers seem to have been related to this method as
well (Houtman, “Urim and Thummim,” 229, 231). The Bible also records common
people casting lots to determine God’s will (Num 26:55–56; Jonah 1:7; Esth 3:7,
9:24–26) without condemning the practice (Lindblom, “Lot-casting,” 164–165,
173).
Joseph (Gen 40:9–13 and 41:15–36)
and Daniel (Dan 2) both engaged in dream interpretation, which was considered
learned insight rather than divination in the ancient world. The incubation of
dreams—which entailed sleeping in a specific place with the expectation of a
divine-induced dream—was practiced throughout the ancient world. Solomon’s act
of seeking aid from God so that he could be a good ruler (1 Kgs 3:4–15) might
be an example of such a practice. Jacob’s vision in Gen 28:10–17 could be
interpreted similarly, though Jacob does not seem to demonstrate this intent
when picking a place to sleep.
The written word became highly
significant in early Judaism. Ezra’s reading of the Torah was a pivotal moment
in the shift from the practices of the religion of Judah to the religion of
Judaism. Noegel notes that biblical passages such as the writing of the Ten
Commandments (Exod 31:18) stress the importance of words (Noegel, “Sign,” 146).
In many regards, the “sacred text” takes an authoritative stance over
divination in later Judaism, or at least one that it must be checked against.
The biblical narrative tells of
other forms of divination without comment or description. Other narratives
provide detailed information about seeking omens without expressing negative
connotations:
• Genesis
30:27 records Laban telling Jacob that he received knowledge from God through
divination, but it doesn’t specify which form of divination or if the Bible
approves or disapproves.
• Genesis
44:5 says that Joseph engaged in divination by using a drinking cup, but it
doesn’t describe his actions or condemn or endorse the practice.
• Judges
6:36–40 records Gideon using sheep skin to understand God’s will—actions over
which God doesn’t express disapproval, but neither does God approve.
• In
Judges 7:4–7 God instructs Gideon to choose soldiers based on their drinking
habits, which could be considered an omen but is ambiguous and could just have
to do with an emphasis on using good judgement.
• 1
Kings 20:33 refers to men looking for an omen but provides no additional
details and without any further comment on the validity of such a practice.
• God’s
prophets refer to signs of coming events—which may be related to the worldview
of omens (e.g., Isa 7:10–17; Joel 2:30–31; see also Heb 3:3–4).
Such passages demonstrate not
only that divination existed in ancient Judah and Israel, but also that some
forms could be practiced without being religiously offensive—despite the
generic ban on divination (Deut 18:10). This does not imply endorsement by the
Bible, just the nature of life in the period. (Lowell K. Handy, “Divination,”
in The Lexham Bible Dictionary, ed. John D. Barry et al. [Bellingham,
Wash.: Lexham Press, 2016], Logos Bible Software edition)