Saturday, April 26, 2025

M.-J. Lagrange on Transformative Justification, οω- verbs, and the δικαι- and צָדַק-word Groups

  

 

ÉTRE JUSTIFIÉ, JUSTIFIER, JUSTIFICATION.

 

Puisque Paul reconnait une justice, à la vérité une justice qui vient de Dieu, qui n'est pas acquise par les œuvres, mais communiquée par lui, n'est-il pas vraisemblable qu'il a employé un verbe pour exprimer cette situation? C'est la question du sens de δικαιουν, à l'actif et au passif.

 

Les verbes en οω ont le sens de rendre tel que l'indique leur racine. Ainsi dxatow devrait proprement signifier « rendre juste ». Ce sens ne se trouve pas dans le grec profane, et la raison en est assez naturelle. Quel que soit le sens de δικαιος, qu'il exprime une disposition droite à l'égard des autres ou plus généralement une disposition générale à bien remplir ses devoirs, cette disposition ne s'impose pas du dehors, parce qu'elle est propre à la personne. On peut employer οσιοω dans le sens de purifier, mais pourvu qu'il soit question d'une purification exterieure. Chez les Grecs δικαιοω signifiait donc simplement regarder comme juste, comme convenable, trouver bon; mais aussi rendre justice a quelqu'un ou le condamner. Le sens déclaratif large est le plus courant, mais le sens spécial de déclarer juste par un jugement est assez rare, et le mot se prête à de nom-breuses combinaisons.

 

C'est aussi ce qu'on constate dans le grec de l'A. T., où il traduit des mots hébreux variés et avec des acceptions différentes. On ne l'a pas suffisamment constate.

 

. . .

 

La forme piel est rendue par l'actif Jer. III, 11; Ez. XVI, 51. 52, dans le sens de se montrer innocent, en comparaison d'un autre plus coupable (Jer.), ou d'innocenter une autre personne, à force d'être mauvais soi-même (Ez.). Ce n'est pas le juge qui prononce l'innocence (relative!) d'une des parties; c'est l'autre partie qui la fait ressortir. Ce n'est déjà plus le sensus forensis déclaratif, mais c'est sans utilité pour l'explication de saint Paul. Le piel est rendu par le passif dans Job XXXIII, 32 : « Parle, car je désire te donner raison » de lhebreu, devient: θέλω γάρ δικαιωθήναί σε, « parle, car je veux que tu aies raison ». Traduire comme M. Feine : « car je voudrais que tu fusses déclaré juste » comme une preuve que les Septante avaient en vue ordinairement le sensus forensis, c'est donner trop d'importance à Elihou qui n'est pas le juge officiel de la cause de Job.

 

Ce qui d'ailleurs nous autorise à traduire comme nous l'avons fait, c'est le cas très fréquent du passif signifiant simplement « etre juste », qui est précisément le fait méconnu que nous voudrions mettre en lumière. C'est, croyons-nous, le cas presque toutes les fois que δικαιουσθαι- ata traduit le qal hébreu צָדַק dont le sens incontestable est « être juste ».

 

. . .

 

Si Dieu est le sujet du verbe actif, il va sans dire qu'il ne reconnait ou déclare juste que celui qui l'est réellement. Nulle part un acquit- tement par grâce n'est exprimé par l'idée de rendre justice. L'usage des apocryphes comporte les mêmes nuances. Évidemment saint Paul devait tenir compte de l'usage reçu de son temps, mais on voit combien cet usage était flottant. Il lui était donc permis de se servir d'un mot très vague pour exprimer ses idées nouvelles. Et ce serait sans doute une autre exagération de penser qu'il lui a donné dès le premier emploi un sens précis, toujours le même. S'il aime les situations franches, il ne répugne pas non plus à l'emploi des nuances. D'après certains auteurs, on dirait que δικαιουν à l'actif et au passif doit nécessairement avoir le sens de déclarer juste ou de rendre juste. Les exégètes catholiques concèdent en général l'emploi des deux sens. Il pourrait bien y en avoir d'autres. (M.-J. Lagrange, “La Justification D’Après Saint Paul,” Revue Biblique 11, no. 3 [July 1914]: 337, 338, 442-43)

 

 

English Translation:

 

Being justified, to justify, justification

 

Since Paul acknowledges a righteousness—truly a righteousness that comes from God, which is not acquired by works but communicated by him—is it not likely that he employed a verb to express this reality? That is the question of the meaning of δικαιουν, in both its active and passive forms.

 

Verbs in -οω carry the sense “to make into” whatever their root denotes. Thus δικαιοω properly means “to make just.” This nuance does not occur in secular Greek, for a simple reason: whatever the sense of δικαιος—whether it denotes a right disposition toward others or, more broadly, a general inclination to fulfill one’s duties—such a disposition cannot be imposed from without, since it belongs to the person. One can use ὁσιοω in the sense “to purify,” but only when referring to an external purification. Among the Greeks, δικαιοω therefore simply meant “to regard as just or fitting,” “to approve”; but it could also mean “to administer justice to someone” or “to condemn.” The broad, declarative sense is most common, while the specific sense of “to pronounce just by a formal judgment” is quite rare, and the word is used in many compound forms.

 

The same is observed in the Greek of the Old Testament, where δικαιοω translates various Hebrew terms with differing senses—a fact that has not been sufficiently noted.

 

 

The Piel form of צָדַק is rendered by the active in Jer. 3:11 and Ezek. 16:51–52, in the sense of “to show oneself innocent in comparison with another more guilty” (Jer.), or “to vindicate another person by being wicked oneself” (Ezek.). Here it is not the judge who pronounces the (relative!) innocence of one party, but the other party who brings it out. This is no longer a declarative sensus forensis, and it is of no relevance to Saint Paul’s usage. The Piel appears in the passive in Job 33:32: the Hebrew “Speak, for I desire to vindicate you” becomes θέλω γάρ δικαιωθήναί σε, “Speak, for I want you to be vindicated.” To follow M. Feine in translating “for I would wish that you were declared just,” as though the Septuagint regularly carried the sensus forensis, places undue weight on Elihu, who is not Job’s official judge.

 

What permits us to render it as we have is the very frequent use of the passive simply meaning “to be just,” which is precisely the neglected fact we wish to highlight. We believe this is almost always the case when δικαιούσθαι translates the Hebrew qal צָדַק, whose indisputable meaning is “to be just.”

 

 

If God is the subject of the active verb, it goes without saying that he recognizes or declares just only the one who truly is just. Nowhere does the notion of acquittal by grace appear under the idea of “making just.” The usage in the Apocrypha shows the same nuances. Clearly, Saint Paul had to take into account the contemporary usage of his time, but one sees how fluid that usage was. He was therefore permitted to employ a rather vague term to express his novel ideas. It would be another exaggeration to suppose that he assigned it a precise, fixed meaning from its first use. Though he favors clear-cut statements, he does not shrink from nuanced expression. According to some authors, one would think that δικαιουν in both active and passive must necessarily mean “to declare just” or “to make just.” Catholic exegetes generally admit the employment of both senses—and perhaps others besides.

 

 

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Friday, April 25, 2025

Brett Hashimoto and Joshua Cowley, “A Corpus-Based Comparison of Keywords and Themes from The Book of Mormon and the Bible" (2024)

 I recently read an interesting article from a journal I just discovered:

 

Brett Hashimoto and Joshua Cowley, “A Corpus-Based Comparison of Keywords and Themes from The Book of Mormon and the Bible,” Interdisciplinary Journal of Research on Religion 20 (2024): 1-31.

 

Here is the final few paragraphs to whet one’s appetite:

 

Conclusion

 

While distinct in their origins and cultural contexts, the Bible and the Book of Mormon share numerous thematic parallels that resonate through their respective narratives. Both texts delve into profound topics central to human experience, such as morality, spirituality, and the struggle between good and evil. Despite their shared themes, each text approaches these subjects with unique emphasis and perspective, resulting in nuanced differences in portrayal.

 

One notable area where the two texts intersect is their exploration of warfare. While the Bible contains accounts of battles and conflicts, the Book of Mormon offers a more detailed and strategic examination of warfare, providing insights into tactics, alliances, and military leadership. The heightened focus on the intricacies of warfare reflects the historical context of the Book of Mormon, which chronicles the struggles of ancient civilizations in the Americas.

 

Conversely, specific themes receive more attention in one text than the other. For instance, the concept of freedom is a recurring motif in the Book of Mormon, with its narrative highlighting the importance of agency and the consequences of both righteous and wicked choices. In contrast, while the Bible touches upon themes of liberty and captivity, it does not delve into the concept of freedom with the same degree of elaboration.

 

Similarly, the texts diverge in their treatment of religious practices and rituals. The Bible contains detailed descriptions of ceremonies, sacrifices, and religious ordinances central to Jewish tradition, offering insights into the spiritual practices of ancient Israelites. In contrast, the Book of Mormon focuses less on physical sacrifice and ritualistic aspects of holy living. However, it highlights specific religious observances more than the Bible, especially regarding baptism.

 

Despite these differences, one can discern similarities in grammar and style, reflecting the standard linguistic conventions of their respective periods and cultural milieus. However, distinct linguistic features and stylistic choices also set them apart, reflecting the diverse authorship and cultural influences behind each text.

 

While the Bible and the Book of Mormon share many thematic threads and linguistic characteristics, their unique perspectives and emphases contribute to a rich tapestry of religious literature, offering readers varied insights into the complexities of human existence and spiritual truth. This analysis has highlighted areas where the books are different, emphasizing the complementary nature of the books of scripture, especially for members of the Church. (Brett Hashimoto and Joshua Cowley, “A Corpus-Based Comparison of Keywords and Themes from The Book of Mormon and the Bible,” Interdisciplinary Journal of Research on Religion 20 [2024]: 22-23)

 

 

Future Directions

 

This keyness analysis highlights many critical differences between The Book of Mormon and the Bible. However, some key themes in each book must be included in the keyword lists, showing limited differences in certain areas. More research is needed to explore similarities between the books by exploring lockwords (significantly common words between two corpora when running a statistical analysis). Furthermore, though we explored a small portion of the keywords of each corpus, there remain many keywords to analyze further to discover differences between The Book of Mormon and the Bible.

 

This study presents a method of keyword analysis that researchers could use to explore various questions in different religious texts. One of the most notable of these relates to the problem of treating the Old Testament and New Testament as a single corpus for this study. The Old Testament and New Testament have many differences. A computational analysis of those differences could lead to new insights and research, adding to the existing work comparing the two "books" that have not been fully explored.

 

Future research could and should also examine the language differences between books within the Bible and the Book of Mormon and authors within scripture, such as the various gospel writers in the New Testament. Also, register analysis could be implemented in such analysis to describe each book more considerately from a register-functional perspective (see, e.g., Biber et al., 2021). Keyword analysis also helps identify critical differences in themes between the Vedas individually or in comparison to other religious texts. Furthermore, speeches could be organized into corpora and compared to answer questions such as "What do modern Evangelical Christian leaders speak about that is distinct from modern Catholic leaders?"

 

While many opportunities exist to learn about contemporary language use and its implications, the possibility of examining language change within and across religions over time may be even greater. Using corpora to examine the topics that were most prevalent within a specific religion 100 years ago compared to that same religion in the 21st century could lead to discoveries of how the religion has changed in its emphasis on specific themes and its treatment of those same themes. Further, comparing multiple religions across many years could lead to conclusions about how religions have influenced one another. The possibilities to learn more about the world's religions by systematically examining the language itself are vast and numerous. (Ibid., 23)

 

 

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Karen Nelson on ḥesed (חסד) and the Gentiles

  

ḥsd and the Gentiles

 

Each quotation in Rom 15:9–12 includes the plural of ethnos (MT: gwym; “nations”/“Gentiles”). First, a psalmist (cf. Christ) praises yhwh/God among the nations/Gentiles (Ps 18:50 MT [17:50 LXX]; Rom 15:9). Psalm 18:51 MT (17:51 LXX) indicates that this is because yhwh does ḥsd (LXX: eleos) to his anointed one (his “Christ”). Next, the nations/Gentiles rejoice with yhwh/God’s people (Deut 32:43 LXX; Rom 15:10). Deuteronomy 32:43 indicates that this is connected with avenging the blood of his servant(s)/son(s). Then, all the peoples and nations/Gentiles praise yhwh / the Lord (Ps 117:1 [116:1 LXX]; Rom 15:11). Psalm 117:2 (116:2 LXX) states that this is because of his superior/strengthened ḥsd (LXX: eleos) and abiding ʾmt (LXX: alētheia). Finally, the nations/Gentiles will hope in “the root of Jesse” (“a messianic designation”; Isa 11:10 LXX; Rom 15:12).

 

The two Psalms quotations in the Rom 15 series point to evidence that the relationship between eleos (MT: ḥsd) and ethnos (MT: gwym), emphasized in verse 9, already existed in the scriptural tradition. Thus, while ḥsd is usually associated with God’s covenant people, God’s choice of Israel as his people “always had this wider call in view.” None of these Scriptures explicitly claims that the Gentiles become members of the covenant people, but God has called Gentiles to be among the vessels of eleos (cf. ḥsd; Rom 9:23–24), Gentiles have become possessors of eleos (Rom 11:31), and the “Israel of God,” on whom Paul invokes a blessing of eleos, is composed of “as many as will follow” the rule of new creation (Gal 6:16). Therefore, Leslie Allen’s claim seems appropriate: “Israel’s would- be hired choristers were destined eventually to become their partners in faith in the international religion of the NT.” (Karen Nelson, esed and the New Testament: An Intertextual Categorization Study [University Park, Pa.: Eisenbrauns, 2023], 97-98)

 

 

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Thursday, April 24, 2025

Irenaeus Teaching Baptismal Regeneration in Against Heresies 1.21.1

In Against Heresies 1.21.1, addressing “heretical notions about redemption,” Irenaeus wrote:

 

The tradition about their redemption turns out to be invisible and incomprehensible, inasmuch as this is the mother of the incomprehensible and invisible beings. And so it is unstable and cannot be told simply or in one word, because each one of them hands it down just as he wishes. For there are as many redemptions as there are mystery-teachers of this doctrine. When in the proper place we shall expose them, we shall tell how this false picture was injected by Satan in order to deny the baptism of rebirth unto God, and to destroy the entire faith. (St. Irenaeus of Lyons: Against the Heresies, Book 1 [trans. Dominic J. Unger; Ancient Christian Writers 1; Mahwah, N.J.: The Newman Press, 1992], 77)

 

Commenting on Irenaeus’ theology of baptism in this and other texts, Everett Ferguson wrote that:

 

What Irenaeus says in contrasting orthodox with heretical baptism indicates his central conception: The teachings of heretics were a denial of “the baptism [βαπτίσματος] of regeneration [ἀναγεννήσεως] to God.” As cited above, baptism is “rebirth to God” by which we become his children (Demonstration 3) and is characterized as a “baptism of rebirth” and “gives rebirth to God” (Demonstration 7). Regeneration is Irenaeus’s most frequently recurring motif in regard to baptism. Christ in Matthew 28:19 gave to his disciples “the power of regeneration [regenerationis] into God.” Because of sin humanity “was in need of the bath of regeneration [lavacro regenerationis—Titus 3:5],” and the healing of the blind man in John 9:7 gave him “the regeneration that is by the bath [lavacrum regenerationem].” The treatment of Naaman’s sevenfold bath in the Jordan34 concludes, “Being regenerated [ἀναγεννώμενοι] spiritually, as the Lord said, ‘One who is not regenerated [ἀναγεννηθῇ] by water and the Spirit cannot enter into the kingdom of heaven.’ ” (Everett Ferguson, Baptism in the Early Church: History, Theology, and Liturgy in the First Five Centuries [Grand Rapids, Mich.: Eerdmans, 2009], 307)

 

 

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Line 3 of “The Phylactery of Moses” (third/early fourth century)

Line 3 of “The Phylactery of Moses” (third/early fourth century) reads:

 

3 Made a [s]pell on a gold leaf six [letters]): “Sabaōth.” [It is necessary] to make an offering with frank[i]ncense (and) myrrh. (Roy D. Kotansky, “The Phylactery of Moses: A New Translation and Introduction,” in Old Testament Pseudepigrapha: More Noncanonical Scriptures, ed. James R. Davila and Richard Bauckham, 2 vols. [Grand Rapids, Mich.: Eerdmans, 2025], 2:367)

 

Commenting on “a gold leaf,” Kotansky wrote that:

 

The spell (or “formula,” Greek logos) on a gold leaf (petalon chryson) follows instructions commonly found in magical handbooks for writing inscribed “leaves” or lamellae. Note PGM VII.382; XII.197, 199; etc. Because the practitioner seems to have misunderstood the text he was copying, he wrote his amulet onto bronze (or, copper, rather). Clearly the instruction intended a gold leaf to be engraved, and this principally with the name of “Sabaōth,” etc. (Ibid., 367 note b.)

 

 

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Roy D. Kotansky on "The Phylactery of Moses" (third-fourth century)

  

The so-called Phylactery of Moses is a text inscribed on a single, small (9.1 cm. x 5.6 cm.) sheet of copper found in Akrai, Sicily sometime in the early nineteenth century. . . . The Phylactery of Moses is, properly speaking, a lamella—a magical amulet engraved onto a thin metal sheet (usually of gold or silver, but occasionally of copper) and worn about the body for general protection.

 

. . .

 

Text

The text of the Phylactery of Moses is preserved in a single manuscript: a small copper or copper-alloy, tablet, height 9.1 cm.; width 5.6 cm, formerly housed in the Syracuse Museo Archeologico Nazionale (no inventory number given) but now lost. Although reported to be bronze, apparently no tests were conducted to identify the metal used. Since copper routinely oxidizes to a green patination, and since copper is the “pure” metal usually adopted for use as amulets, it seems likely that this amulet is copper but has been misidentified as bronze. Bronze is a copper-tin alloy. In the ancient magical handbooks, phylacteries made of metal are to be written on gold, silver, copper, tin, or (occasionally) lead or iron—all pure earth metals that are not alloyed. No instructions in the ancient magical literature prescribe the engraving of amulets onto bronze.

 

. . .

 

The original date of the composition of the amulet must be viewed not only in the context of its use of the Aquilan version, but also alongside the paleographic issues and how this text stands in relation to the fact that it shows a lot of wear and tear from excessive handling in antiquity, something that may account for the injunction within the text that the tablet should be handed down to no one but one’s legitimate heirs. This mandate recorded more than once on the tablet enhances the prospect that the amulet was highly venerated within the family who owned it and that it was possibly handed down for posterity within subsequent generations. Hence, the actual writing of the tablet may belong to a period much older than the archaeological context in which it was discovered, uncertain as that may be. In this respect, the amulet can be seen as an heirloom artifact kept in the household for centuries before eventual burial with the last surviving family member.

 

The paleographic hand preserved on the Acre copper lamella can be dated from the late second century to the third century, although it is not impossible that the amulet could date as late as the early fourth century CE. (Roy D. Kotansky, “The Phylactery of Moses: A New Translation and Introduction,” in Old Testament Pseudepigrapha: More Noncanonical Scriptures, ed. James R. Davila and Richard Bauckham, 2 vols. [Grand Rapids, Mich.: Eerdmans, 2025], 2:356, 358, 359)

 

 

 

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Karen Nelson on ḥesed (חסד) and Covenant Relationships

  

ḥsd and Covenant Relationships

 

The category ḥsd is associated with covenant relationships. Three such relationships are evident in texts that Paul quotes or alludes to in Rom 15:7–13. Psalm 18 mentions the line of David, Ps 117 mentions yhwh’s ḥsd toward Israel (“us”), and Mic 7 concludes with the parallel statements “ʾmt to Jacob” and “ḥsd to Abraham.”

 

For Paul, covenant promises to David’s line are fulfilled in Jesus, David’s anointed descendant. The excerpt from Ps 18 (17 LXX) quoted in Rom 15:9b indicates that the psalmist will praise God among the nations/Gentiles. Dunn understands the words of this passage as “the words of the devout Jew (David) foreshadowing the situation of the diaspora Jew, and now particularly of the Jewish Christian.” However, the ones who benefit from yhwh’s ḥsd (LXX: eleos) in Ps 18:51 MT (17:51 LXX) are yhwh’s anointed one, King David, and his descendants. If, as the superscription implies, the psalmist is also David, then the one who praises the Lord in Rom 15 is not a representative “Jewish Christian,” but one specific Jew, a descendant of David. Indeed, when reflecting on the significance of David’s victory for the Rom 15 context, Moo suggests that Paul may include the quotation “as a claim of the risen Christ.” This “messianic” interpretation of Ps 17:50 LXX is consistent with the omission of kyrie in the quotation and Paul’s attribution of the words of another psalm “of David” to Christ (Ps 68:10 LXX in Rom 15:3). In Ps 68 LXX, the appeal for salvation/deliverance is also on the basis of the Lord’s eleos (MT: ḥsd; vv. 2, 14–15). But, for Paul, eleos (MT: ḥsd) is demonstrated by the great “salvation/victory” (sōtēria; Ps 18:50 [18:51 MT; 17:51 LXX]) for King David’s descendant, Christ Jesus (Rom 15:8–9; cf. 10:9–13; 11:11).

 

Regarding the Lord’s eleos (MT: ḥsd) toward Israel, Paul refers to another psalm (Rom 15:11). Psalm 116 LXX is concerned with the response of all peoples and nations to the Lord’s eleos (MT: ḥsd) toward Israel and the Lord’s abiding alētheia (MT: ʾmt). Reading Rom 15:8–9 in light of the parallelism between eleos and alētheia in that psalm, it appears that Christ becoming a servant to the circumcised is an expression of God’s abiding alētheia, and the Gentiles are praising the Lord for his eleos toward his covenant people. Indeed, Paul consistently emphasizes God’s faithfulness to the covenant with / promises to Israel.

 

On the other hand, this combination of terms occurs also in Mic 7:20, in the same order as in Rom 15:8–9 (first, alētheia [cf. ʾmt]; second, eleos [cf. ḥsd]). Building on the idea that, in Christ, “God has been faithful . . . to the promises he made to Abraham” (Rom 4; 9; 11),the distinction between alētheia and eleos in Rom 15:8–9 may also be explained in terms of the associations between the Gentiles and the Lord’s promises to Abraham (Gen 18:18), between the Jews and the Lord’s promises to Jacob (as well as Abraham). This interpretation would bring a fitting culmination to an overarching theme of Romans, introduced in 1:16–17, that the gospel is the power of God for salvation to everyone who believes—first the Jew and also the Greek.

 

Thus, in Rom 15:9, as in each scriptural quotation/allusion discussed here, eleos evokes yhwh/God’s ḥsd, expressed within covenant relationships. According to Paul, the events he describes occur or have occurred on the basis of those covenants. (Karen Nelson, esed and the New Testament: An Intertextual Categorization Study [University Park, Pa.: Eisenbrauns, 2023], 96-97)

 

 

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