Monday, March 9, 2026

R. C. H. Lenski on Matthew 25:12 (cf. Matthew 7:23)

  

12) Here the reality begins. Jesus speaks as the great Bridegroom, “Amen, I say to you,” verity and authority, see 5:18. He has again pictured his Parousia. It will take place as here described. Many carelessly let the day of grace pass by until it is too late. In ὑμῖν and ὑμᾶς the parabolic language is still retained. But while these pronouns refer to the foolish virgins they are now quite transparent because Jesus introduces himself into the parable. “I do not know you,” like, “I never knew you” in 7:23, completely disowns. Here the verb is οἶδα, in 7:23 it was ἔγνω, but the sense is the same, but the former says more; not only, “I have no relation to you,” but, “You have no relation to me.” C.-K. 388. (R. C. H. Lenski, The Interpretation of St. Matthew’s Gospel [Minneapolis: Augsburg Publishing House, 1961], 970, emphasis in bold added)

 

Sunday, March 8, 2026

The Earliest Known Use of the Word "Evangelist" Outside of the Bible

In his article, “Word Studies from the New Testament,” Ensign (January 1995), John W. Welch wrote that:

 

. . . the earliest known use of the word euangelistes (“you-ON-gell-is-TAYS”) outside the Bible is of considerable interest to Latter-day Saints. It was found in a Greek inscription on the island of Rhodes; it appears to be a burial inscription of a high priest who functioned in a temple of Apollo. Most scholars who have studied this fragmentary text have concluded that this priest was called a euangelistes because he was “the deliverer of oracular sayings” to individuals who typically came seeking prophetic information from Apollo about their personal lives.

 

In note 4, he references the following:

 

Albrecht Dietrich, “Euangelistes,” Zeitschrift für die neutestamentliche Wissenschaft 1 (1900): 336–37; see also Gerhard Kittel, ed., Theological Dictionary of the New Testament, 10 vols. (Grand Rapids, Mich.: Eerdmans, 1967), 2:736–37.

 

Not knowing German, I ran the Dietrich article through a machine translation. I have TDNT on Logos, so am sharing with those who are interested in this claim by Welch:

 

Albrecht Dietrich, “Euangelistes,” Zeitschrift für die neutestamentliche Wissenschaft 1 (1900): 336–38

 

Fragliche Spuren des Urchristentums auf den griechischen Inseln hat oben S. 87 ff. H. Achelis behandelt. Er nennt die auf S. 88 abgedruckte Inschrift aus Rhodos in Hiller v. Gärtringens (Inschriften der griechischen Inseln I 1, No. 675) selbst die interessanteste und wichtigste dieser Gruppe. Ich vermute, dass man bei ihr die Spur des Christentums für am sichersten ausgewiesen halten und eilend gewichtige Schlüsse ziehen wird. Deshalb sei mir, so wenig ich die oben angeregten Fragen überzeugend zu beantworten mich anheischig mache, eine kurze Warnung gestattet.

 

Dass der christliche εὐαγγελιστής im Beginn seiner Grabschrift Δάφνας καὶ θεοῦ ἀρχιερεύς genannt werde, ist strikt unmöglich. Nicht dass er es gewesen wäre, ist unmöglich, sondern dass man es dem Christen auf den Grabstein geschrieben haben sollte. Deshalb hilft die Erinnerung an den früheren Kybelepriester Montanus gar nichts. Achelis fühlt ja selbst, dass der Vorwurf der Gegner des Montanus in unserem Falle nichts erklären kann. Hier ist jedes Parlamentieren ausgeschlossen.

 

Leider scheint die dritte Zeile der Inschrift unrettbar verstümmelt zu sein. Dagegen ist in der sechsten Zeile jenes ὉΡΟΣ εὐαγγελιστής nicht etwa ὁ ἱερός εὐαγγελιστής oder dergleichen zu lesen, sondern ὁ ἥρως εὐαγγελιστής.

 

Man weiss, dass ein Gott und ein Heros Εὐάγγελος von Griechen mannigfach verehrt wurde. Man mag die Belege bei Usener in den Götternamen S. 268 ff. nachlesen. An die Angabe des Hesychios Εὐάγγελος · ὁ Ἐρμής, den angelus bonus der Vibiakatakombe, den Heros Εὐάγγελος in Ephesos und den Monat Εὐάγγελιoς in Smyrna möchte ich erinnern, besonders aber an den Εὐάγγελος, der als Stammvater des Priestergeschlechts der Εὐαγγελίδαι am Branchidenheiligtum bei Milet galt, der wie ein Göttersohn aufwuchs und „Verkündiger der Orakelsprüche“ wurde: ποιεῖται

 

δε αὐτὸν ὁ Βράχος καὶ ἄγγελον τῶν μαντευμάτων Εὐάγγελον ὀνομασας (Konon fab. No. 44). Ich füge hinzu, dass in einem inschriftlichen Inventar des Heraions zu Samos (Carl Curtius, Inschriften und Studien zur Geschichte von Samos, Lübecker Progr. 1877, Z. 21 u. Z. 37, U. Köhler, Athenische Mitteilungen VII 370) zu lesen steht κρήδευμα ἐπτά· τούτων ἐν ἣ Εὐαγγελίς ἔχει und κηθῶνες δύο ἔνδυτα τῆς Εὐαγγελίδος. Ich glaube nicht, dass es sich, wie Maass, Indogerm. Forschungen I 162, meint, um eine Statue der Εὐάγγελις handelt, wie eine solche des Hermes dort stand, sondern dass es der Amtsname der Orakelpriesterin war, der jene Inventarstücke zukamen.

 

Glaubt man noch, dass das Wort εὐαγγελιστής „das Christentum“ der Inschrift beweisen könne? Jene Zeugnisse stammen alle aus Kleinasien und den vorgelagerten Inseln und ich will beifügen, dass die Belege für den parallelen Ἀγαθὸς ἐὐάγγελος und Ἀγαθὸν ἐὐάγγελος ebenfalls alle nach Karien, Smyrna, jedenfalls Kleinasien weisen (die Belege bei Usener a. a. O.).

 

Dass ein Oberpriester „der Daphne und des Gottes“ als Εὐαγγελιστής heroisiert wird, hat nichts Unwahrscheinliches mehr. Von Daphne wird erzählt, dass sie in Delphi Orakel verfasst habe, aus denen auch Homer geschöpft haben solle; sie sei die Tochter des Teiresias gewesen und auch Sibylle benannt worden (Diodor IV 66). Man weiss, dass die Tochter des Teiresias sonst Manto heisst, die das berühmte Apollonorakel von Klaros gestiftet haben sollte, ja, die geradezu zur typischen vorderasiatischen Sibylle geworden ist. Ich weiss nicht, warum Achelis von dem Oberpriester in Daphne spricht und vom Heiligtum des Apollo in Daphne vor den Thoren von Antiocheia. Unseres Oberpriesters Cult war der der Daphne und des Gottes, der in diesem Falle natürlich Apollon war. Wir können von diesem doch wohl rhodischen Heiligtum — in Rhodos wurde Apollon viel verehrt, auch ein Ἀπόλλων Πύθιος (s. I. Gr. Ins. Nr. 25, 67 und den Index) — nichts sagen, so viel ich weiss, als dass, dass es vermutlich ein apollinisches Orakelheiligtum war, in dem neben Apollon Daphne eine noch viel grössere Rolle spielte als Manto im analogen Orakelcult von Klaros. Unser ἀρχιερεύς wird der „Verkündiger der Orakelsprüche“ gewesen sein.

 

Dass er unter besonderem Namen heroisiert wird, ist nichts merkwürdiges. Ich will nicht auf den Aristomachos zurückgreifen, den man in Marathon als ἥρως ἰατρός verehrte, oder den Sophokles, der zum ἥρως Δεῖτωρ wurde; die Beispiele aus späterer Zeit, die etwa, um ein Beispiel zu nennen, Xenophon, der Arzt des Kaisers Claudius, auf Kos als ἥρως εὐεργέτης verehrt wurde, sind deutlich genug, um den ἥρως εὐαγγελιστής verständlich zu machen.

 

Wenn der Orakelpriester eines Cultes, der analog demjenigen war, den das Priestergeschlecht der Εὐαγγελίδαι verwaltete, heroisiert wird als ἥρως εὐαγγελιστής, wenn er nur mittels einer andern Weiterbildung des in jenen Gegenden Kleinasiens heimischen Gottes- und Heroennamens Εὐάγγελος benannt wird, will man dann wirklich die Grabschrift eines urchristlichen Evangelisten zu besitzen glauben, „bis etwa ein heidnischer Evangelist nachgewiesen ist“? Aber warten wir, was sie dort aus der Erde graben werden, wo das Christentum zuerst griechisch redete. Auch die neue „heidnische“ Inschrift stammt aus Kleinasien, in der es vom Geburtstag des σωτήρ Augustus heisst ἦρξεν δὲ τῷ κόσμῳ τῶν δι' αὑτὸν εὐαγγελίων.

 

English Translation:

 

Questionable traces of early Christianity on the Greek islands have been treated above (pp. 87 ff.) by H. Achelis. He calls the inscription printed on p. 88 from Rhodes in Hiller v. Gärtringens (Inschriften der griechischen Inseln I 1, No. 675) itself the most interesting and most important of this group. I suspect that with this inscription one will consider the trace of Christianity as most securely demonstrated and will hastily draw weighty conclusions. Therefore, although I am not so forward as to pretend convincingly to answer the questions raised above, allow me a brief warning.

 

That the Christian εὐαγγελιστής at the beginning of his epitaph should be called Δάφνας καὶ θεοῦ ἀρχιερεύς is strictly impossible. It is not impossible that he was such a person, but it is impossible that one should have inscribed that on the Christian's tombstone. Hence the recollection of the earlier Cybele-priest Montanus helps nothing. Achelis himself feels that the charge of Montanus' opponents explains nothing in our case. Here any bargaining is out of the question.

 

Unfortunately the third line of the inscription seems irretrievably mutilated. By contrast, in the sixth line that ὉΡΟΣ εὐαγγελιστής is not to be read as ὁ ἱερός εὐαγγελιστής or something of the sort, but as ὁ ἥρως εὐαγγελιστής.

 

One knows that a god and a hero Εὐάγγελος were worshipped by the Greeks in many ways. One may consult the evidences in Usener's Die Götternamen, p. 268 ff. I would recall Hesychius' note Εὐάγγελος · ὁ Ἐρμής, the angelus bonus of the Vibia catacomb, the Heros Εὐάγγελος in Ephesus and the month Εὐάγγελιoς in Smyrna, and especially the Εὐάγγελος who was regarded as the ancestor of the priestly family of the Εὐαγγελίδαι at the Branchidae sanctuary near Miletus, who grew up like a son of the gods and became the "proclaimer of the oracle-sayings": ποιεῖται

 

δε αὐτὸν ὁ Βράχος καὶ ἄγγελον τῶν μαντευμάτων Εὐάγγελον ὀνομασας (Konon fab. No. 44). I add that in an epigraphic inventory of the Heraion at Samos (Carl Curtius, Inschriften und Studien zur Geschichte von Samos, Lübecker Progr. 1877, Z. 21 u. Z. 37; U. Köhler, Athenische Mitteilungen VII 370) one reads κρήδευμα ἐπτά· τούτων ἐν ἣ Εὐαγγελίς ἔχει and κηθῶνες δύο ἔνδυτα τῆς Εὐαγγελίδος. I do not believe, as Maass (Indogerm. Forschungen I 162) supposes, that this is a statue of the Εὐάγγελις, like a statue of Hermes which stood there, but that it was the official title of the oracle-priestess to whom those inventory-items belonged.

 

Does one still believe that the word εὐαγγελιστής could prove "Christianity" in the inscription? Those testimonies all come from Asia Minor and the offshore islands, and I will add that the attestations for the parallel Ἀγαθὸς εὐάγγελος and Ἀγαθὸν εὐάγγελος likewise all point to Caria, Smyrna, in any case Asia Minor (the evidence is in Usener, loc. cit.).

 

That a high priest "of Daphne and of the god" is heroized as Εὐαγγελιστής is no longer improbable. It is told of Daphne that she composed oracles at Delphi, from which even Homer is said to have drawn; she was said to be the daughter of Teiresias and was also called a Sibyl (Diodorus IV 66). One knows that the daughter of Teiresias is elsewhere called Manto, who is said to have founded the famous Apollonian oracle of Klaros, indeed who has become almost the typical Near-Eastern Sibyl. I do not know why Achelis speaks of the high priest at Daphne and of the sanctuary of Apollo at Daphne before the gates of Antioch. Our high priest's cult was that of Daphne and of the god, who in this case of course was Apollo. We cannot say much about this probably Rhodian sanctuary — on Rhodes Apollo was much worshipped, also an Ἀπόλλων Πύθιος (see I. Gr. Ins. Nos. 25, 67 and the index) — as far as I know, except that it was presumably an Apollonian oracle-sanctuary in which Daphne, alongside Apollo, played an even larger role than Manto did in the analogous oracle-cult of Klaros. Our ἀρχιερεύς will have been the "proclaimer of the oracle-sayings."

 

That he is heroized under a special name is not surprising. I will not go back to Aristomachos, whom one worshipped at Marathon as ἥρως ἰατρός, or to Sophokles, who became ἥρως Δεῖτωρ; the later examples, which — to give one example — Xenophon, the physician of the emperor Claudius, was worshipped on Cos as ἥρως εὐεργέτης, are clear enough to make ἥρως εὐαγγελιστής intelligible.

 

If the oracle-priest of a cult, which was analogous to that administered by the priestly family of the Εὐαγγελίδαι, is heroized as ἥρως εὐαγγελιστής, if he is called by a further development of the god- and hero-name Εὐάγγελος native to those districts of Asia Minor, should one then really believe that one possesses the epitaph of an early-Christian evangelist, "until perhaps a pagan evangelist is proved"? But let us wait and see what they will dig up out of the ground where Christianity first spoke Greek. The new "pagan" inscription also comes from Asia Minor, in which it reads of the birthday of the σωτήρ Augustus: ἦρξεν δὲ τῷ κόσμῳ τῶν δι' αὐτὸν εὐαγγελίων.

 

The following is from Gerhard Friedrich, “Εὐαγγελίζομαι, Εὐαγγέλιον, Προευαγγελίζομαι, Εὐαγγελιστής,” TDNT 2:736-37:

 

εὐαγγελιστής.

 

Except in ecclesiastical literature this is a rare word. In a non-Christian sense it is attested only on a poorly preserved inscr, from Rhodes, IG, XII, 1,675, 6, where it means “one who proclaims oracular sayings.”

 

It occurs only 3 times in the NT: at Ac. 21:8 of Philip (cf. 8:4f., 12, 35, 40); at Eph. 4:11 of evangelists along with apostles, prophets, pastors and teachers; and at 2 Tm. 4:5 of Timothy (cf. 1 Th. 3:2; Phil. 2:22). The number of evangelists must have been greater than one might suppose from the number of occurrences in the NT (Phil. 4:3; 2 C. 8:18; Col. 1:7; 4:12). The NT evangelist is not one who declares oracles as among the Greeks. He is the מְבַשֵּׂד, the one who proclaims the glad tidings, the εὐαγγέλιον (R. 10:15 → 719). εὐαγγελιστής originally denotes a function rather than an office, and there can have been little difference between an apostle and an evangelist, all the apostles being evangelists (→ 733). On the other hand, not all evangelists were apostles, for direct calling by the risen Lord was an essential aspect of the apostolate. In all three NT passages the evangelists are subordinate to the apostles. Philip is a supervisor of alms (Ac. 6), not an apostle. In his missionary work in Samaria he preaches and baptises, but the baptised receive the Spirit only through the prayer of the apostles Peter and John (Ac. 8:14 f.). In Eph. 4:11 the evangelists are mentioned only after the apostles. Timothy is called a σύνεργος τοῦ θεοῦ ἐν τῷ εὐαγγελίῳ τοῦ Χριστοῦ in Th. 3:2, but he is a pupil of the apostles rather than an apostle (→ 733). The evangelists continue the work of the apostles. They are not just missionaries, for, as εὐαγγέλιον is congregational as well as missionary preaching (→ 734), so the leader of the community can also be called εὐαγγελιστής (2 Tm. 4:5). His task is κηρὐύσσειν τὸν λόγον (2 Tm. 4:2).

 

In the early Church the evangelists were regarded as successors of the apostles. Eus. Hist. Eccl., V, 10, 2: ἦσαν εἰς ἔτι τότε πλείους εὐαγγελισταὶ τοῦ λόγου, ἔνθεον ζῆλον ἀποστολικοῦ μιμήματος συνεισφέρειν ἐπʼ αὐξήσει καὶ οἰκοδομῇ τοῦ θείου λόγου προμηθούμενοι. They lay θεμελίους τῆς πίστεως and the → ποιμένες appointed by them continue the work in the respective congregations, Eus. Hist. Eccl., III, 37, 2 f. In accordance with the development of εὐαγγέλιον (→ 735), εὐαγγελιστής has also the sense of “author of a Gospel,” Hipp. De Antichristo, 56; Tertullian Adversus Praxean, 21, 23. The two senses are found alongside one another.

 

Review of Chandler Hendry (LDS) vs. Reitmeier (Calvinist) on "How Are We Actually Saved?" (Part 1)

 We hope to have part 2 soon.


Review of Chandler Hendry (LDS) vs. Reitmeier (Calvinist) on "How Are We Actually Saved?" (Part 1)







Strack and Billerbeck on 1 Corinthians 3:12

  

3:12: Gold, silver, precious stones, wood, hay, straw.

 

1. χρυσίον = זָהָב, Aram. דְּהַב, det. דַּהְבָא “gold”; its use in buildings is attested in b. Sukkah 51B in a baraita and b. B. Bat. 4A at § Matt 24:1; m. Šeqal. 4.4 at § Matt 17:24, #6; t. Menaḥ. 13.18 (533) at § John 18:13, n. b; Josephus, J. W. 5.5.3 at § Acts 3:2, #2, n. a.

 

2. ἀργύριον = כֶּסֶף, Aram. כְּסַף, det. כַּסְפָּא “silver” is mentioned rarely as an adornment on buildings; see as an example Josephus, J. W. 5.5.3 at § Acts 3:2, #2, n. a.

 

3. λίθοι τίμιοι, valuable stones, α. = gemsa אֲבָנִים טוֹבוֹת (sing.: אֶבֶן טוֹבָה), so Rev 17:4; 18:12, 16; 21:11, 19. Yet gems appear only rarely as a building materialb and then most of the time only for the time of the eschatological consummation.cβ. = precious stone אֲבָנִים יְקָרוֹת,d singularly also וָטוֹב אֶבֶן בָּחוּר.f By this is meant valuable building material like marble and alabaster,e and in certain circumstances also a stone that is fitting because of its size and form, particularly as a cornerstone.f Since the list in 1 Cor 3:12 is a climax descendens, λίθοι τίμιοι should be understood in the sense of β.

 

a. Babylonian Talmud Baba Batra 16B: R. Simeon b. Yohai (ca. 150) said, “A gem אבן טובה hung on the neck of our father Abraham; for every sick person who saw him was immediately healed. When our father Abraham departed from the world, God hung the stone on the sun wheel.” Abbayye († 338/39) said, “This is what the people say (in a proverb): ‘When the sun rises, sickness is lifted.’ ” — The parallel in t. Qidd. 5.17 (343) reads מרגלית טובה “precious pearls” instead of אבן טובה. ‖ Babylonian Talmud ʿAbodah Zarah 8B: The Romans had it inquired of the Greeks: … “Pearl and gem אבן טיבה, which of them should be the underlayment (mounting) for the other?” They sent word to them: “The pearl for the gem (the latter is thus more precious than the former).” ‖ See Exod. Rab. 30 (91B) at § Matt 13:46.

 

b. Rev 18:16.

 

c. Rev 21:19. ‖ See b. B. Bat. 75A with parallels at § John 20:29; Pesiq. 137B at § Matt 5:25 B.

 

d. So אבנים יקרות (1 Kgs 7:9, 10).

 

e. See the baraita in b. Sukkah 51B at § Matt 24:1.

 

f. See Pirqe R. El. 24 at § Matt 21:42, #1.

 

4. ξύλα = עֵצִים (sing.: עֵץ) “wooden.”

 

Genesis Rabbah 1 (2C): R. Joshua b. Levi (read: R. Joshua of Sikhnin, ca. 330) said in the name of R. Levi (ca. 300), “Whoever builds needs six things: water, earth (such as silt, sand, clay), wood עֵצִים, stones, pipe, and iron. And if you should say, ‘He is wealthy and does not need pipe,’ look, he still needs the measuring pipe; as it is written, ‘A linen cord was in his hand and the measuring pipe’ (Ezek 40:3).”

 

5. χόρτος “grass” = חָציר, עַשֶׂב; also “dry grass” = hay חָצִיר יָבֵשׁ,a so 1 Cor 3:12. There is no evidence from rabbinic literature for the use of hay in building. However, the rabbis do use the expression “hay” in the metaphorical sense of humanity when it is necessary to emphasize their worthlessness and nothingness.a

 

a. Midrash Psalm 119 § 20 (248A): “The impudent mock me to no end; (nevertheless) from your Torah I have not departed.” (Ps 119:51). With what did they mock me (the community of Israel)? Mocking, they said to me, “The one who has driven you into exile (= God) will not bring you back again.” And so it says, “The face of Yahweh dispersed them, he will not look at them again” (Lam 4:16). It further says, “ ‘Out of the way! Unclean!,’ it was called out to them; ‘Out of the way, out of the way, do not touch!…’ ” (Lam 4:15). They said among the gentiles, “They may no longer abide” (Lam 4:15). Therefore, it was said, “The impudent mock me to no end; (but still I have not departed from your Torah.” And again, they said to me, “Do not circumcise and do not keep the Sabbaths and do not read in the Scripture!” But I feared you and did not listen to them, for they are hay חציר יבש (dry grass): as the grass חציר does not endure, so too their words will not endure forever. And so Scripture says, “The grass חציר is dried up, the flower withered” (Isa 40:7). But as you abide forever, so too your words will abide forever; see Isa 40:8. — See also 2 Bar. 82:2ff. at § Rom 3:9 A, #2, n. c.

 

6. καλάμη = תֶּבֶן “straw.” — Chopped straw was often blended as a binding material in the silt or clay that was used for building.a — Like “hay” (see above in #5), the expression “straw” also served metaphorically as a designation of the worthless mass of humanity.b

 

a. Tosefta Šebiʿit 5.18 (68): Straw תבן from the fallow year may not be put into a pillow or into silt (used for building). (The straw grown in other years could of course be used because it was freely at the disposal of the field owner.) ‖ After the year 70, houses were not to be entirely whitewashed with lime any longer, as a sign of mourning over the destruction of the temple. Either a piece of the house remained without whitewash or straw chaff was blended into the whitewash, whereby it became unsightly. The issue is addressed in the following baraita in b. B. Bat. 60B: One may not whitewash his house (completely) with lime. If one has mixed in sand or straw תבן, it is permitted. R. Judah (ca. 150) said, “If sand has been mixed in, this is (buffing) mortar and prohibited. Straw is permitted.” — A parallel passage is found in b. Šabb. 80B. — The baraita stems from t. Soṭah 15.9 (322).

 

b. See Pesiq. Rab. 10 (35B) at § Matt 5:43, #1, n. g; see Midr. Song. 7:3 (127A) at § Rom 3:9 A, #1, n. c. See the parallel that belongs here in Midr. Ps. 2 § 14 (16A) at § Heb 1:5 A, #3. (Hermann L. Strack and Paul Billerbeck, A Commentary on the New Testament from the Talmud and Midrash, ed. Jacob N. Cerone, 4 vols. [trans. Andrew Bowden and Joseph Longarino; Bellingham, Wash.: Lexham Press, 2022], 3:387-89)

 

Further Reading:


1 Corinthians 3:15: A very un-Protestant Biblical Verse

Saturday, March 7, 2026

Scriptural Mormonism Podcast Episode 95: Islam: A Jewish-Christian Heresy? (with Jabra Ghneim)

Episode 95: Islam: A Jewish-Christian Heresy? (with Jabra Ghneim)






Robert Alter on 2 Kings 3:27

  

he took his firstborn. A king’s sacrifice of his own child, in an effort to placate the gods at a moment of military emergency, was a familiar practice in the ancient Near East.

 

and a great fury came against Israel. This denouement is surely perplexing from a monotheistic point of view. “Fury” (qetsef) is usually the term for God’s devastating rage against Israel when the people has transgressed. Here, however, Israel has done no wrong. And the descent of the fury explicitly reverses Elisha’s favorable prophecy. This turn of events might reflect an early tradition that accords Chemosh, the Moabite god, power that must be propitiated by human sacrifice, so that he will then blight the enemies of Moab. In any case, the story means to explain why Israel and its allies, after an initial victory, were obliged to retreat. A Moabite inscription on a stele, discovered in 1868, in which Mesha speaks in the first person, triumphantly proclaims a sweeping victory over Israel, though it is not altogether clear whether this victory is over Jehoram or his predecessor. (Robert Alter, The Hebrew Bible, 3 vols. [New York: W. W. Norton & Company, 2019], 2:538)

 

Marvin A. Sweeney on 2 Kings 3:26-27

  

[26–27] The Moabite king attacked the king of Edom because he perceived the Edomites as the weak link in the forces of the Israelite coalition. When the attempt failed, the Moabite king sacrificed his own son to appease the Moabite god Chemosh. Human sacrifice is attested in biblical tradition and elsewhere in the ancient world in times of emergency (Judg 11:29–40; 2 Kgs 16:3; Mic 6:7; see Montgomery and Gehman 363; Cogan and Tadmor 47). The notice, “and great wrath was upon Israel” (Hebrew, wayěhî qeṣep gādôl ʿal yiśrāʾēl) is frequently understood as a reference to Chemosh’s wrath that then plays a role in Israel’s defeat. Although the term qeṣep, “wrath,” generally describes YHWH’s anger “against” (ʿal) wrongdoers (see Num 18:5; Deut 29:27; Josh 9:20; 22:20; Cogan and Tadmor 47), the phrase here can hardly refer to wrath directed “against” Israel. Such an interpretation requires that YHWH’s oracle concerning the defeat of Moab would remain unfulfilled and thereby raises doubts about its legitimacy. There is otherwise no indication in this narrative that YHWH’s oracle is to be considered as false. The reference to anger must be read as “upon” (ʿal) Israel, that is, Israel became angry at the sight of Mesha’s sacrifice of his son, and consequently withdrew from Kir Haresheth. Israel/Jehoram—and not YHWH—would be responsible for the failure to achieve victory over the Moabites. The scenario provides a parallel to the wilderness tradition—for example, the Israelite spies refused to accept YHWH’s guarantees of victory and suffered as a result (Num 14). (Marvin A. Sweeney, I & II Kings: A Commentary [The Old Testament Library; Louisville, Ky.: Westminster John Knox Press, 2013], 284)

 

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