κοσμοκράτωρ, only here in the NT, came to be used in astronomy and astrology and
was applied to various gods (the names of the planets show their association
with deities). The word is found also in T
Sol 8:2; 18:2, in both cases qualified by a reference to darkness as in
Ephesians; it is not clear whether the Testament
of Solomon predates Ephesians, depends on it, or uses the word
independently; if the last were the case it would indicate the probable
existence of the word prior to Ephesians; alternatively it may have been AE’s
own creation. It would be a suitable term to apply to God as ruler of the
cosmos; in 6:12 however it obviously has an evil connotation as its
qualification with darkness implies; the qualification may have been necessary
if the word was already in use in some circles, perhaps with reference to
earthly rulers, without an ‘evil’ connotation. ‘Darkness’ itself carried the
idea of evil (e.g. in 5:8) and, in a sense, is also linked to astronomy for it
is only in darkness that the planets are visible. The world rulers belong to
the sphere of darkness rather than the time of darkness (cf Gnilka). The term
then indicates in 6:12 a group or class of supernatural evil beings and since
these belong to the darkness they will attempt to lure believers away from the
light, i.e. from redemption (Schlatter).
The final term in AE’s sequence appears to be comprehensive as if he
were seeking to avoid omitting any evil supernatural power (cf 1:21; 5:27). GNB
therefore wrongly makes the first three terms explanatory of this fourth. πνευματικός is normally used in the NT in relation to
the Holy Spirit (e.g. Rom 1:11; 1 Cor 2:13; 3:1; 9:11; 12:1; 14:1), and was
used in this way earlier in the letter (1:3; 5:19). But there are of course
evil spirits (cf T Sim 3:5; 4:9; T Levi 18:12; 1 En 15:8–12; 99:7; 1QM 13:2, 4; CD 12:2; Lk 7:21; 8:2; Acts
19:12f) and the qualification here with πονηρίας ensures that the reference is to these and not good spirits. Evil
spirits are regularly associated with the devil (cf v. 11). Here they are not
of course the demons which may inhabit humans and require to be exorcised;
exorcism is not mentioned in respect of the defeat of any of those named here.
These evil spirits dwell in the heavenlies (cf 2:2; T Benj 3:4; 2 En 29:4f; Asc Isaiah 7:9; 11:23), and this accords
with the association of the powers with astrology. Contemporary Judaism thought
of a multiplicity of heavens; do the powers then live in the same heaven as
Christ and God (the last phrase of the verse referring to the heavenlies covers
all four named categories and not just the fourth)? Since AE uses the same
plural phrase here as in 1:20, this suggests he thought they did. Such a
possibility gave patristic commentators difficulty. Chrysostom, Theod Mops,
Theodoret all understood ἐν as
if it were περί or implying that the
struggle was not about earthly but heavenly matters. 𝔓46 Did avoid the difficulty by
omitting the phrase. Some Fathers read ὑπουρανίοις, ‘under heaven’; Theod Mops is aware of this reading though he does
not accept it. Jerome believed that the powers were in the heavenlies and this
also seems to have been the opinion of Tertullian, adv. Marc 5:18. The conclusion cannot be evaded that AE presents
the powers as heavenly inhabitants and the war between them and humans as
taking place there where believers already are (2:6); yet it should also be
recognised that heaven is a fluid concept. But, despite Rev 12:7; 13:1ff, can
there be war in heaven? To avoid this implication Chrysostom and Theod Mops
spoke of a war waged on behalf of the Kingdom (i.e. heaven). From Origen
onwards many have connected 6:11 to 2:2 and sought a distinction between an upper
and a lower heaven; Pelagius identified the latter with the sphere of birds.
Whatever the precise resolution of this problem, it is important to realise
that AE wishes to drive home to his readers that as believers their struggle is
of a superhuman nature. The repeated πρός stresses both the fact of the struggle and its many aspects. AE’s
emphasis obviously impressed the early church; the first two volumes of Biblia Patristica contain forty-three
references to quotations of it or allusions to it. It also attracted the
attention of gnostics (in NHC Hyp Arch
II, 4 86:23–35; Exeg Soul II, 6
130:35–131:13; Teach Silv VII, 4
117:14–18; Ep Pet Phil VIII, 2
137:10–30; Testim Truth IX, 3 32:28;
cf Exc Theod 48:2). The concept of
battle with the powers is also found in Melch
IX, 1 20:22–3. (Ernest Best, A Critical and Exegetical Commentary
on Ephesians [International Critical Commentary; Edinburgh: T&T Clark
International, 1998], 593-95)
