The general Jewish conviction was that, in political terms, all
empires would be subject to the Messiah. In religious terms, opinions
oscillated between universalism and particularism.
a. Universalism. Babylonian Talmud ʿAbodah Zarah 24A: “All the flocks
of Kedar will be gathered together to you” (Isa 60:7). R. Eliezer (ca. 90)
said, “All of them (the nations of the world are meant by ‘flocks of Kedar’)
will be proselytes in the future (in the messianic era).” Rab Joseph († 333)
said, “What scriptural passage is there in support of this? Zephaniah 3:9,
“Then I will change the language of the nations to purified lips, that they may
all call upon the name of Yahweh and serve him with one neck.” Abbayye (†
338/39) replied to him, “Perhaps this applies (only) to idolatry, from which
they will turn away!” Rab Joseph said, “To serve him with one neck (shoulder to
shoulder) as it is written in Zeph 3:9.”—The second tradition that then follows
differs in the assignment of author names. ‖ Jerusalem Talmud ʿAbodah Zarah
2.40C.19: R. Hiyya b. Lulianai (= Julianus [ca. 360]) said in the name of R.
Hoshaiah (ca. 225), “The children of Noah (= non-Israelites) will one day (= in
the Messianic era) take all the commandments upon themselves. What is the
scriptural basis? See Zeph 3:9 (as above). ‖ Genesis Rabbah 88 (56B): (The one
who would like to expect) that the whole world (in the Messianic era) will
become one covenant אֲגוּדָּה אַחַת,
as it is said in Zeph 3:9 (as above)? ‖ Babylonian Talmud Sanhedrin 39A: An
emperor said to R. Tanḥuma (ca. 380), “Come, we should all become one people!”
He answered, “Fine, but we who are circumcised cannot become as you are.
Circumcise yourselves and become as we are!” The emperor said, “You have spoken
a true word, but whoever defeats the king will be thrown into the kennel.” They
threw him into the kennel, but they did not eat him! A sectarian (Jewish
Christian) said, “They did not eat him because they were not hungry.” They
threw him into the kennel, and they ate him. (Hermann L. Strack and
Paul Billerbeck, A Commentary on the New Testament from the Talmud and
Midrash, ed. Jacob N. Cerone, 4 vols. [trans. Andrew Bowden and Joseph
Longarino; Bellingham, Wash.: Lexham Press, 2022], 2:618-19)
