That Jesus explains he will build his church on a
"rock" further reinforces the impression that such imagery is in
play. In Jewish tradition, temples and other cultic sites were typically linked
with "stone" imagery (see Gen 28:10-22; Isa 8:14-15; 28:16; Zech
4:7-9; m. Yoma 5:2; b. Yoma 54a-b; Lev. Rab. 20:4; Num. Rab. 12:4; Bet ha-Midr.
5.63; T. Sol. 23:6-8; 4 Ezra 13:36). Jewish tradition specifically linked the
construction of the temple by the Davidide to stone imagery. This is especially
clear in Zech 4:7-9, a passage that describes the Davidide Zerubbabel building
the temple:
"Before Zerubbabel you shall become a plain; and he
shall bring forward the top stone amid shouts of 'Grace, grace to it!'" 8Moreover
the word of the Lord came to me, saying, 9"The hands of
Zerubbabel have laid the foundation of this house; his hands shall also
complete it. Then you will know that the Lord of hosts has sent me to
you."
Because Zerubbabel was linked to an action that the
prophets tied to the eschatological age- namely, rebuilding the temple- it
seems this passage may likely have been read messianically. (Michael Patrick
Barber, “Jesus
as the Davidic Temple Builder and Peter’s Priestly Role in Matthew 16:16-19,” Journal
of Biblical Literature 132, no. 4 [2013]: 940-41)
. . . the seemingly disparate images of building on a
rock (v. 18a) and conflict with πυλαι
αδου (“gates of hell”; v. 18b) point to the
need for an underlying scheme to unite them. The Targums and later rabbinic
writings portray the temple as resting on a cosmic stone which covered this
underworld. For example. Tg. Ps.-J. Exod 28:20 (in the cultic context
describing Aaron’s garments) describes “the foundation stone (תהומא רבא) which
which the Lord of the world sealed up the mouth of the great deep/abyss (תהומא רבא)
at the beginning.” This matches nicely with the following description in Matt
16:18: πυλαι
αδου ου κατισχυσουσιν αυτης. Moreover, the cosmic stone was not
only seen as something that covers the abyss, but also as the foundation of the
temple. The Mishnah describes it as the stone upon which the ark rested, three
finger lengths above ground: “a stone was there from the days of the earlier
prophets; it was called “Foundation” (שתיה; m. Yoma 5:2).
Data concerning the cosmic stone comes later, but the
idea here fits quite well with the presence of a rock that is the foundation of
a significant structure, as well as being in contact and conflict with the
underworld, and this would entail the significant structure being the temple.
This narrative coheres well with the common tradition of cultic sites being
connected to a special stone. In other words, the concepts of building on a
rock and conflict with πυλαι
αδου at first seem to be unrelated. But if
the underlying image is that of a temple, then these formerly disparate ideas
are properly linked if the rabbinic tradition extends back to the time of our
text. (Bruce Henning, “The Church’s One Foundation? Peter as the Messianic Temple
Stone in Matt 16:18,” in Practicing Intertextuality: Ancient Jewish and
Greco-Roman Exegetical Techniques in the New Testament [Eugene, Oreg.: Cascade
Books, 2021], 79-80)
Here are the extra-biblical sources referenced by Barber and Henning:
מִשֶּׁנִּטַּל
הָאָרוֹן, אֶבֶן הָיְתָה שָׁם מִימוֹת נְבִיאִים רִאשׁוֹנִים, וּשְׁתִיָּה הָיְתָה
נִקְרֵאת, גְּבוֹהָה מִן הָאָרֶץ שָׁלשׁ אֶצְבָּעוֹת, וְעָלֶיהָ הָיָה נוֹתֵן:
After the Ark was taken
into exile, there was a rock in the Holy of Holies from the days of
the early prophets, David and Samuel, who laid the groundwork for
construction of the Temple, and this stone was called the foundation
rock. It was three fingerbreadths higher than the ground, and the High
Priest would place the incense on it. (Mishnah
Yoma 5.2)
וּשְׁתִיָּה הָיְתָה
נִקְרֵאת. תָּנָא: שֶׁמִּמֶּנָּה הוּשְׁתַּת הָעוֹלָם. תְּנַן כְּמַאן דְּאָמַר
מִצִּיּוֹן נִבְרָא הָעוֹלָם, דְּתַנְיָא, רַבִּי אֱלִיעֶזֶר אוֹמֵר: עוֹלָם
מֵאֶמְצָעִיתוֹ נִבְרָא, שֶׁנֶּאֱמַר: ״בְּצֶקֶת עָפָר לַמּוּצָק וּרְגָבִים
יְדוּבָּקוּ״.
§ The mishna taught that a stone sat in the Holy of
Holies and it was called the foundation [shetiyya] rock. A
Sage taught in the Tosefta: Why was it called shetiyya? It
is because the world was created [hushtat] from it. The Gemara
comments: We learned the mishna in accordance with the opinion of
the one who said that the world was created from Zion. As it was
taught in a baraita that Rabbi Eliezer says: The world was
created from its center, as it is stated: “When the dust runs into a mass, and
the clods cleave fast together” (Job 38:38). The world was created by
adding matter to the center, like the formation of clumps of earth.
רַבִּי יְהוֹשֻׁעַ
אוֹמֵר: עוֹלָם מִן הַצְּדָדִין נִבְרָא, שֶׁנֶּאֱמַר: ״כִּי לַשֶּׁלֶג יֹאמַר
הֱוֵי אָרֶץ וְגֶשֶׁם מָטָר וְגֶשֶׁם מִטְרוֹת עוּזּוֹ״. רַבִּי יִצְחָק
(נַפָּחָא) אָמַר: אֶבֶן יָרָה הַקָּדוֹשׁ בָּרוּךְ הוּא בַּיָּם, מִמֶּנּוּ
נִשְׁתַּת הָעוֹלָם, שֶׁנֶּאֱמַר: ״עַל מָה אֲדָנֶיהָ הׇטְבָּעוּ אוֹ מִי יָרָה
אֶבֶן פִּנָּתָהּ״.
Rabbi Yehoshua says: The
world was created from the sides, as it is stated: “For He said to the snow:
Become the earth, likewise to the shower of rain, and to the showers of His
mighty rain” (Job 37:6). This verse indicates that the rains fell from all
sides, which led to the creation of the earth. Rabbi Yitzḥak Nappaḥa said:
The Holy One, Blessed be He, cast a stone into the sea, from which the world
was created, as it is stated: “Upon what were its foundations fastened; or who
laid its cornerstone?” (Job 38:6). (Yoma
54b.2-3)
Rabbi Yudan of Gaul began: “Does the eagle ascend at your
directive?” (Job 39:27). The Holy One blessed be He said to Aaron: ‘Did I rest
My Divine Presence upon the Ark by the word of your mouth, or did I remove My
Divine Presence from upon the Ark by the word of your mouth?’ “[On a rock it
dwells and stays the night, on the crag of the rock and the stronghold” (Job
39:28).] “On a rock it dwells” – the first Temple; “and stays the night” – one
lodging. The second Temple is “on the crag of the rock and the stronghold,” –
many lodgings, as we learned there: When the Ark was removed, the foundation
stone was there. Why was it called that? Rabbi Yosei ben Ḥalafta said: It is
because from it, the world was founded. That is what is written: “From Zion,
from the perfection of beauty” (Psalms 50:2). (Leviticus
Rabbah 20.4)
“It was on the day that [Moses] concluded” – that is what
is written: “[King Solomon] made himself a palanquin [from the timber of
Lebanon]” (Song of Songs 3:9) – this is the world, which is made like a type of
palanquin. “King Solomon [Shelomo]” – this is the Holy One blessed be
He, who instituted peace [shalom] between fire and water, combined one
with the other, and crafted the firmament, as it is stated: “God called the
firmament heaven [shamayim]” (Genesis 1:8), as it is fire [esh]
and water [mayim]. “From the timber of Lebanon” – as it was constructed
from the place of the Temple. Rabbi Yosei bar Ḥalafta said: Why is it called
the foundation stone? It is because the world was founded upon it. That is what
is written: “From Zion, the epitome of beauty, God appeared” (Psalms 50:2). (Numbers
Rabbah 12.4)
Testament of Solomon 23:
1 Then I said to him, “What can you
do for me?” He responded, “I am able to move mountains, to carry houses from
one place to another, and to overthrow kings.” 2 I said to him,
“If you have the power, lift this stone into the beginning of the corner of the
Temple.” But he responded, “I will raise not only this stone, King; but, with
(the aid of) the demon who lives in the Red Sea, (I will) also (lift up) the
pillar of air (which is) in the Red Sea and you shall set it up where you
wish.”
3(123) When
he had said these things, he went in underneath the stone, lifted it up, went
up the flight of steps carrying the stone, and inserted it into the end of the
entrance of the Temple. 4* I, Solomon, being excited,
exclaimed, “Truly the Scripture which says, It
was the stone rejected by the builders that became the keystone, has now
been fulfilled,” and so forth. (OTP 1:985)
1 Ἐγὼ δὲ λέγω πρὸς αὐτόν· »τί μοι δύνασαι ποιῆσαι;« ὁ δὲ ἔφη· »ἐγὼ δυνατός εἰμι ὄρη μεταστῆναι καὶ μεταφέρειν οἴκους καὶ βασιλεῖς καταβαλεῖν.«
2 καὶ εἶπον αὐτῷ· »εἰ δυνατὸς εἶ, ἔπαρον
τὸν λίθον τοῦτον εἰς τὴν ἀρχὴν τῆς γωνίας τοῦ ναοῦ.« ὁ δὲ ἔφη. »οὐ μόνον τοῦτον τὸν λίθον ἐπαρῶ, βασιλεῦ, ἀλλὰ
καὶ σὺν τῷ δαίμονι τῷ ἐν τῇ Ἐρυθρᾷ θαλάσσῃ τὸν ἐν τῇ Ἐρυθρᾷ θαλάσσῃ κίονα τὸν ἀέριον, καὶ στήσεις
αὐτὸν ὅπου θέλεις.«
3 καὶ ταῦτα εἰπὼν ὑπεισῆλθεν ὑποκάτω τοῦ λίθου καὶ ἦρεν * αὐτὸν καὶ ἀνῆλθεν εἰς τὸν κλίμακα βαστάζων τὸν λίθων καὶ ἔθετο αὐτὸν εἰς τὴν ἄκραν τῆς εἰσόδου τοῦ ναοῦ.
4 ἐγὼ δὲ Σολομῶν ἐπαιρόμενος εἶπον· »ἀληθῶς νῦν ἐπληρώθη ἡ γραφὴ ἡ
λέγουσα· >λίθον ὃν ἀπεδοκίμασαν οἱ οἰκοδομοῦντες οὗτος ἐγενήθη μὲν εἰς κεφαλὴν γωνίας,< καὶ τὰ λοιπά. (Ken Penner and Michael S. Heiser,
“Old Testament Greek Pseudepigrapha with Morphology” [Lexham Press, 2008])
And Zion will come and be made manifest to all people,
prepared and built, as you saw the mountain carved out without hands. (4 Ezra
13:36 [OTP 1:552])
Targum Pseudo-Jonathan Exodus
28:30:
ותיתן בחשן דינא ית אוריא דמנהרין
מיליהון ומפרסמין טמירן דבית ישראל וית תומיא דמשלימין בעובדיהון לכהנא רבא דתבע
אולפן מן קדם ייי בהון דבהון חקיק ומפרש שמא רבא וקדישא דביה אתבריין תלת מאה
ועישרתי עלמיא וחקיק ומפרש באבן שתייה דבה חתם )מרי( עלמא פום תהומא
רבא מן שירויא וכל מאן דמדכר ההוא שמא קדישא בשעת אניקי מישתיזב וטמירן מיגליין
ליה ויהון על ליבה דאהרן בזמן מיעליה קדם ייי ויטול אהרן ית דין בני ישראל על
ליביה קדם ייי תדירא (Comprehensive Aramaic Lexicon,
Targum Pseudo-Jonathan to the Pentateuch [Hebrew Union College, 2005],
Logos ed.)
And you shall place in the breastplate of judgment the
Urim, which illuminate their words and reveal the hidden things of the House of
Israel, and the Thummim, which perfect their deeds, for the High Priest who
seeks instruction before the Lord through them. For upon them is engraved and
explained the Great and Holy Name, through which were created three hundred and
ten worlds. And it is engraved and explained on the Foundation Stone, through
which the Master of the world sealed the mouth of the Great Deep from its
roaring. And anyone who mentions that Holy Name at the time of distress will be
delivered, and hidden things will be revealed to him. And they shall be upon
the heart of Aaron when he comes before the Lord, and Aaron shall bear the
judgment of the children of Israel upon his heart before the Lord continually.
עונות כימי השמים על הארץ אלבינם כשלג [בפסיקתא רבתי פ״מ גורס:
אם עשיתם תשובה בהם ואתם באים לפני ביו״כ ואפי׳ יש עונות מן הארץ וער השמים אני מלבינם
כשלג] כמו שנאמר אם יהיו חטאיכם כשנים כשלג ילבינו אם יאדימו כתלע כצמר יהיו (ישעיה
א׳ י״ח). עשר דברות הללו [פי׳ י׳ מלות של פסוק הנ״ל, ובפסיקתא רבתי ובילקוט ישעיה גירסא
אחרת] כנגד י׳ הדברות וי׳ מאמרות שבהם ברא הקב״ה עולמו שכל העה׳ז כולו עמד בדין ובדין
נתהייב כליה מפני עונותיו של אדם, והקב״ה עומר מכסא דין ויושב על כסא רחמים ומזכה עולמו
נמצא הוא כאלו ברא עולמו בו ביום. כתיב 1) פתחו שערים ויבא גוי צדיק שומר אטונים (ישעיה
כ״ו ב׳) אל תקרי אמונים אלא אָמנִים שעונים אמן ובשביל אמן שיענו הפושעים יעלו מניהנם,
כיצד חקב״ה יושב בג״ע ודורש וכ הצדיקים יושבים לפניו וכל פמליא של מעלה עומדים על רנליהם,
חמה ומזלות מימינו ולבנה ומזלות משמאלו והב״ה דורש להם טעמי תורה חדשה שעתיר ליתן להם
לישראל ע״י משיח ואח״כ עומר זרבֶּבֶל על רגליו ואומר קדיש ויהיה קולו הולךי מסוף העולם
עד סופו וכל העולם באים ועונים אמן, ואף פושעי ישראל וצדיקי א״ה שנשתיירו בגיהנם עונים
אמן מתוך גיהנם עד שנתרעש כל העולם כלו ונשמעים דבריהם לפני הב״ה ושואל מה קול רעש
זה ששמעתי ומשיבים מלאכי השרת ואומרים רבש״ע הכל גלוי וידוע לפניך הם רשעי ישראל וצדיקי
או״ה שנשתיירו בגיהנם שעונים אמן מתוך ניהנם מיד יתגלגלו רחמיו ונוטל מפתחות של גיהנם
בידו ונותנם לגבריאל ומיכאל וא״ל לכו ופתחו שערי גיהנם והעלו אותם מניהנם שנאמר פתחו
שערים ויבא גוי צדיק שומר אמונים מיד הולכים מיכאל וגבריאל ופותחים שערי גיהנם ומעלים
איתם כמו אדם המעלה חברו מן הבור שנאמר ויעלני מבור שאין מטיט היון וגו׳ (תהלים מ׳
ג) ויהיו מיכאל וגבריאל עומדים עליהם ורוחצים אותם וסכין אות ומרפאים אותם מטכות של
אש ניהנם ומלבישים אותם מלבושים נאים וטובים ותופשים אותם בידם ומביאים אותם לפני הקב״ה
וכל הצדיקים שנאמר כהניך ילבשו צדק (תהלים קל״ב ט׳) כהניך אלו צדיקי
"The sins that are as numerous as the days of the
heavens upon the earth—I will whiten them like snow. [In Pesikta Rabbati,
chapter 40, it is taught: If you repent for them and come before Me on Yom
Kippur, even if the sins reach from the earth to the heavens, I will whiten
them like snow], as it is said: 'If your sins are like scarlet, they will
become white as snow; if they are red as crimson, they will become like wool'
(Isaiah 1:18).
These ten phrases [interpreted as the ten words of the
verse above; a different version appears in Pesikta Rabbati and Yalkut Shimoni
on Isaiah] correspond to the Ten Commandments and the ten utterances through
which the Holy One, Blessed be He, created the world. The entire world stood in
judgment and was deemed worthy of destruction due to humanity's sins. Yet, the
Holy One, Blessed be He, arose from the Seat of Judgment, sat on the Seat of
Mercy, and vindicated His world. Thus, it is as if He created the world anew on
that very day.
It is written: 'Open the gates, so that a righteous
nation, keeping faith, may enter' (Isaiah 26:2). Do not read 'keeping faith'
(emunim) but rather 'those who answer Amen' (omanim). Because of the Amen that
even the sinners respond with, they are raised from Gehinnom (purgatory).
How so? The Holy One, Blessed be He, sits in the Garden
of Eden and teaches, and all the righteous sit before Him while the entire
heavenly entourage stands on their feet. The sun and constellations stand to
His right, and the moon and constellations to His left. The Holy One, Blessed
be He, expounds the reasons for a new Torah that He will give to Israel through
the Messiah. Afterward, Zerubbabel arises and recites the Kaddish, and his
voice carries from one end of the world to the other. All the world responds,
'Amen.' Even the sinners of Israel and the righteous of the nations who remain
in Gehinnom respond 'Amen' from within Gehinnom. This causes the entire world
to tremble, and their voices reach the Holy One, Blessed be He.
He asks, 'What is this sound of trembling that I hear?'
The ministering angels answer, 'Master of the Universe, all is revealed and
known before You: these are the sinners of Israel and the righteous of the
nations who remain in Gehinnom, answering "Amen" from within
Gehinnom.'
Immediately, His compassion is aroused. He takes the keys
of Gehinnom into His hand and gives them to Gabriel and Michael, saying to
them, 'Go and open the gates of Gehinnom and bring them up from Gehinnom,' as
it is said: 'Open the gates, so that a righteous nation, keeping faith, may
enter.' Immediately, Gabriel and Michael go and open the gates of Gehinnom,
raising them up like a person pulling their friend out of a pit, as it is said:
'He brought me up out of the pit of destruction, out of the miry clay' (Psalms
40:3). Michael and Gabriel stand over them, wash them, anoint them, heal them
from the burns of the fires of Gehinnom, and dress them in fine and good
garments. They take them by the hand and bring them before the Holy One,
Blessed be He, and all the righteous, as it is said: 'Your priests shall clothe
themselves in righteousness' (Psalms 132:9)—'Your priests' refers to the
righteous."
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